The ability to write well at university and research level is a valuable skill: good writing lends credibility to a text, just as poor writing can detract from it. The PhraseBook therefore includes Writing Help sections with advice on grammar, style and punctuation in university and research writing. These sections help you avoid many common errors in English before submitting your text, for instance for examination or publication.
Style
English, as all languages, has variations of style, from the most colloquial to the most formal. Informally you may have a hunch, but in a paper, thesis or research report you put forward a hypothesis. While colloquial forms can sometimes be used for stylistic effect, in university and research writing more formal style is the norm, and this helps your writing to be taken seriously. The PhraseBook includes a number of Writing Help sections on university and research style, for example:
- How to refer to yourself in writing
- Avoiding bias and prejudice
- Avoiding slang
- Avoiding contracted forms
- Avoiding clichés
- Avoiding tautology
Colloquial style versus research style
Colloquial or slang | Research style |
---|---|
all right | satisfactory |
brainy | intelligent |
ditto | ibid. |
figure out | calculate or solve |
hunch | hypothesis |
info | information |
kids | children |
lab | laboratory |
a lot of | many or a great deal of |
maths GB or math US | mathematics |
OK | satisfactory |
Avoiding bias
An important part of university and research writing is avoiding bias and prejudice, including gender bias. The use of he as a general reference to both sexes is now dated. In the example below, using the plural surgeons allows his to be replaced by the gender-neutral their.
Original
A surgeon must be aware of his limitations.
Better
Surgeons must be aware of their limitations.
Avoiding clichés
Clichés should generally be avoided in university and research writing, as they can devalue your work in the eyes of the reader.
you know |
you name it |
the bottom line |
at the end of the day |
in this day and age |
the name of the game |
get your act together |
a legend in his or her own lifetime |
a whole new ball game |
bet your bottom dollar |
better late than never |
over the moon |
the be-all and end-all |
it’s not over till it’s over |
Avoiding tautology
In your writing beware of tautology, which means unnecessarily repeating the same meaning in different words. For example:
Examples |
---|
adequate enough |
advance warning |
at this moment in time |
blue in colour GB or color US |
in close proximity |
a consensus of opinion |
divide up |
few in number |
in actual fact |
join together |
overexaggerate |
past history |
a positive benefit |
previous experience |
revert back |
Spoken forms versus formal written forms
Contracted forms, though normal in speech, are usually avoided in university and research writing. Again, this is a guideline rather than a fixed rule: for example, you might use spoken forms when citing interview responses. A number of spoken forms and their formal written equivalents are given below:
Spoken form | Formal written form |
---|---|
I’m | I am |
it’s | it is |
who’s | who is |
we’re | we are |
you’re | you are |
they’re | they are |
I’ll | I will or shall |
he’ll | he will or shall |
gonna | going to |
I’d | I had or would |
you’d | you had or would |
isn’t | is not |
ain’t | am, is, are not or has, have not |
aren’t | are not |
don’t | do not |
can’t | cannot (see note) |
didn’t | did not |
won’t | will not |
Referring to Yourself
Subjectivity and objectivity
Referring to yourself in university and research writing is a conflict between modesty, which tends to avoid calling attention to the author, a desire to be and be seen to be objective, which tends to avoid using the subjective pronoun I, and the importance of clearly identifying the author of a written text. Although by convention I is avoided in writing in many subjects, this in itself does not make writing more objective.
A further point is that printed work, though written by someone, is produced by machine and given the appearance of impersonality. The permanence and status of the written word and in particular of print adds credence to a text, indeed, the printed word is often ‘taken as read’.
In referring to yourself, the alternatives vary in how directly they point to you as the author, with I the most direct, and passive phrases such as It may be argued not actively referring to the author at all. These ways of referring to yourself mirror ways of addressing others in many languages, for example by using a plural as in French vous or a title as in Spanish usted.
How you refer to yourself depends on normal usage in your subject, and how visible you personally wish to be in your text. In university and research writing, some fields and publications prefer the author to be present in the text by using more direct forms, while others prefer a more impersonal style.
Ways of referring to yourself
I |
---|
I do not wish to suggest that… |
I would like to thank my supervisor, X, who encouraged me to… |
My own view is that… |
one |
One could argue that… |
One may question whether… |
This becomes clear when one examines… |
we |
We can say that… |
What we are mainly concerned with here… |
Our view is that… |
Note: in some subjects, using we to refer to a single author is regarded as old-fashioned, though some writers use we to include the audience in the discussion. Using we in a co-authored paper is neutral.
the author
Examples |
---|
The view of the author is that… |
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of… |
Note: when writing about other authors’ work, do not refer to yourself as the author or the writer, which can be confused with the author or writer you are reviewing.
Impersonal phrases
Examples |
---|
It is clear that… |
This study argues… |
This paper will show… |
One possible explanation is that… |
Note: beware of using impersonal forms that are unclear about the person or people expressing an opinion or finding, such as It is believed or It was found that which do not make clear who believes or made the finding.
Passive phrases
Examples |
---|
…can be explained by… |
It may be argued that… |
It has been shown in this chapter how… |
Do not use you
Although common in speech, do not use you to mean ‘one’ in university and research writing:
Examples |
---|
First you boil the liquid, then you change the filter. |
Commonly confused words
English spelling is notoriously inconsistent. Today, writing on a computer means that many of the problems of English spelling are avoided, as a word processor automatically checks your spelling and can also offer basic grammar advice. However, many specialized terms may be marked as incorrect by your computer – Microsoft Word for example suggests pesto for postdoc, Tactics for Tacitus, karaoke for keratose, Yeast for Yeats and milkman for myeloma.
Furthermore, spelling and grammar checkers may not detect words written correctly but used in the wrong context – principle and principal or causal and casual for example. Misspellings and malapropisms such as Jane Austen’s heroin, currant research or the human gnome project may amuse your readers but would detract from your credibility.
The PhraseBook therefore includes a number of sections on commonly confused words in university and research writing:
principle – principal
A principle is a rule or law
Examples |
---|
first principles |
In principle, the two types are… |
Principal means the main or most important
Examples |
---|
the principal cause… |
the principal investigator… |
A simple way to remember the difference between principle and principal is that principle ends in the same letters as rule.
effect – affect
Effect means result
Examples |
---|
The effect of…was immediate. |
…proved to be very effective |
Affect means to influence, especially negatively
Example |
---|
Normal life in parts of Africa is greatly affected by AIDS. |
discrete – discreet
Discrete means separate or distinct
Example |
---|
The process consists of a number of discrete stages. |
Discreet means tactful or secretive
Example |
---|
The reviewers’ comments are always discreet. |
Singular and plural forms
Many Greek and Latin loan words in university and research writing have irregular plural forms, and a number of commonly confused singular and plural forms are given below.
data
Although data is the plural of Latin datum, it is commonly used in English as singular. In formal academic language, however, data is still often plural:
Example |
---|
The data are inconclusive. |
criterion – criteria
Criteria is the plural of criterion.
Examples |
---|
The sole criterion in the selection process was… |
Many criteria were used in the selection process. |
phenomenon – phenomena
Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon
Examples |
---|
This phenomenon can be seen in… |
Several different phenomena… |
medium – media
Media is the plural of medium
Examples |
---|
The Internet is a new and exciting medium. |
The media are often blamed for… |
bacterium – bacteria
Bacteria is the plural of bacterium
Examples |
---|
A single bacterium is too small to be seen with the naked eye. |
While some bacteria are beneficial, others are harmful. |
Irregular plurals
analysis, appendix, basis, continuum, corpus, formula, hypothesis, matrix, maximum, synopsis etc.
Punctuation
Punctuation is governed by rules, but these rules are in some cases arbitrary and inconsistent. A number of Writing Help sections in the PhraseBook give advice on punctuation in university and research writing, including differences between British and American English:
- Full stop or period
- Comma
- Semicolon
- Colon
- Dash
- Hyphenation
- Exclamation mark or point
- The possessive
- Punctuating quotations
- Single or double quotation marks
- Capitalization
- Abbreviations
- Parenthesis and ellipsis
Full stop (GB) or period (US)
The dot at the end of a sentence is called a full stop in British English and a period in the United States.
Comma
A simple rule of thumb for where to use a comma in a sentence is where you would pause to breathe when reading your text aloud to an audience.
Commas in series
In a series of three or more items, choose whether to use a comma before the last item:
With a final comma |
---|
New York, Washington, and San Francisco |
New York, Washington, or San Francisco |
Or not:
Without a final comma |
---|
England, Scotland and Wales |
England, Scotland or Wales |
As always be consistent throughout your text. However, in cases of ambiguity, use a comma to make a clear distinction between items:
Examples |
---|
The wide-ranging discussion covered not only human rights, but also corruption and the United Nations. |
The wide-ranging discussion covered not only human rights, but also corruption, and the United Nations. |
Semicolon
The term semicolon is misleading; it is not half a colon, but rather half a full stop or period. A semicolon is stronger than a comma and weaker than a full stop or period, for example:
Examples |
---|
I’ve run out of funding; I don’t know what to do. |
Up to a point this may be true; however,… |
A semicolon is also sometimes used to divide a complex list, for example of references, which could be confusing with a comma. However, as a semicolon is stronger than a comma, it also breaks up the flow for a reader, so it should be used sparingly in this way.
Example |
---|
Smith (2007:218); Jones (2010), see especially pp. 34-45; Brown (1965:281, 296-300); Green (2011:33; 2001:57) |
Colon
A colon is a pause like a semicolon, but it is used to introduce something that follows:
Examples |
---|
Several American writers spring to mind: Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, Tennessee Williams and Ernest Hemingway for example. |
The conferences will be held in:
|
Hyphen
The use of the hyphen can be problematic, not least in words such as nonconformist, co-operation, self-regulatory etc. To be as consistent as possible, follow the spelling checker on your computer or a single dictionary, as usage and guidelines vary. The following examples illustrate common prefixes:
Prefix | Without hyphen | With hyphen |
---|---|---|
anti- | antibiotic | anti-Establishment |
co- | cooperative | co-operative |
neo- | neoclassical | neo-Nazism |
non- | nonconformist | non-nuclear |
post- | postwar | post-Keynesian |
pre- | prerequisite | Pre-Raphaelite |
pro- | proceed | pro-American |
re- | reclaim | re-evaluate |
self- | selfish | self-absorbed |
semi- | semicircle | semi-independent |
sub- | subterranean | sub-Saharan |
A hyphen can be used
To make a word easier to read, for example where the prefix and root have the same letter:
With hyphen | Without hyphen |
---|---|
co-ownership | |
semi-independent | |
non-nuclear | nonnuclear |
proto-oncogene | |
re-examine | reexamine |
Or a confusing combination of letters:
With hyphen | Without hyphen |
---|---|
anti-apartheid | |
anti-establishment | |
micro-organism | microorganism |
Before a capital letter:
With hyphen |
---|
post-Keynesian |
Pre-Raphaelite |
non-SI |
To distinguish different meanings:
With hyphen | Without hyphen |
---|---|
to re-form the United Nations | to reform the United Nations |
ten year-old children | ten-year-old children |
Dash
A dash can be used to insert a phrase in your sentence:
Example |
---|
Several British cities — Manchester, Liverpool, Bristol, Newcastle and Glasgow for example — were important in the Industrial Revolution. |
Or as a pause for thought in your text:
Example |
---|
The consequences were clear—war. |
A dash can be written either with or without spaces before and after, but as always be consistent throughout your text.
Exclamation mark GB or exclamation point US
Apart from subject-specific uses such as n! in mathematics, the exclamation mark (GB) or exclamation point US is rarely used in university and research writing.
The Possessive
Singular possessive
The singular possessive is normally formed by adding ‘s
Examples |
---|
the author’s work |
the patient’s reaction |
Smith’s paper |
Newton’s laws |
Names that end in s, z or x
For singular names that end in s, z or x, you can use an apostrophe either with s or without s. In many cases both are correct:
Examples | |
---|---|
Bayes’ theorem | Bayes’s theorem |
Pepys’ diary | Pepys’s diary |
Yeats’ poetry | Yeats’s poetry |
However, use an apostrophe plus s if the possessive sounds unclear without s
Examples |
---|
Tallis’s music |
Lenz’s law |
Gauss’s law |
Erasmus’s work |
Dylan Thomas’s Under Milk Wood |
And use the apostrophe without s if the possessive sounds or looks awkward with s
Examples |
---|
Archimedes’ principle |
Achilles’ heel |
Cervantes’ Don Quixote |
Alternatively, you can paraphrase:
Examples |
---|
the reign of King James |
the works of Tacitus |
Marxist theory |
pre-Columbian art |
The plural possessive
Most plural words simply add an apostrophe to form the possessive:
Examples |
---|
the authors’ work |
patients’ reactions |
the participants’ experience |
Nouns whose plural does not end in s
Plural nouns like men, women and children add ‘s
Examples |
---|
men’s room |
women’s rights |
children’s hospital |
The compound possessive
For the possessive of compounds such as the Security Council, William the Conqueror or Watson and Crick, add ‘s to the last word of the compound:
Examples |
---|
the Security Council’s decision |
William the Conqueror’s victory |
Watson and Crick’s breakthrough |
Possessive pronouns
The possessive pronouns do not have an apostrophe:
Examples | ||
---|---|---|
his | ours | whose |
hers | yours | |
its | theirs |
But: one’s
One’s immediate reaction is…
Note: it’s with an apostrophe is short for it is, who’s is short for who is. Neither is used in formal writing.
Abbreviations
Plural abbreviations can normally be written without an apostrophe:
Examples |
---|
Various NGOs were represented at the meeting. |
Several MPs were forced to resign. |
But with an apostrophe for the possessive:
Examples |
---|
The UN’s problems have been well documented. |
The BBC’s coverage of the election was widely praised. |
Numbers
The PhraseBook also includes help sections on writing numbers:
- When to write figures or words
- Avoiding beginning a sentence with a figure
- Avoiding mixing words and figures
As well as Roman numerals and Greek and Latin numerical affixes:
Roman numerals and Greek alphabet
- I, II, III, IV, L, C, M etc.
Greek and Latin numerical affixes
- mono-, di-, tri-, quadr-, penta-, hexa-, sept-, oct-, nona-, dec-, semi-, proto-, poly- etc.
Words or figures?
A common rule for writing numbers is to write one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine and ten as words, but larger numbers as figures. As always, you should follow any guidelines for your field or publication.
Numbers as words |
---|
one |
two |
three |
four |
five |
six |
seven |
eight |
nine |
ten |
Compare also the examples below where words are used for approximate amounts, and figures for exact values:
Approximate and exact |
---|
There have been over fifty new cases this year. |
There have been 54 new cases this year. |
There are around five thousand new students every year. |
Last year there were 5023 new students. |
Use figures with abbreviations
Figures with abbreviations |
---|
3% |
6 mm |
80 kg |
100 km |
Avoid beginning a sentence with a figure
Try to avoid beginning a sentence with a figure, for example:
Examples |
---|
1 in 10 pregnancies… |
Better: One in ten pregnancies… |
55% of the population… |
Better: Fifty-five per cent GB or percent US of the population… |
Avoid mixing words and figures
Avoid mixing words and figures in the same sentence, for example:
Figures and words |
---|
Compulsory education in Britain is from five to 16, though some children begin already at age four. |
Better: Compulsory education in Britain is from 5 to 16, though some children begin already at age 4. |
Values over a million
However, some values over a million, for example currencies, are written as figures and words:
Examples |
---|
GBP 3 million |
$10 billion |
350 million people |
Billion
Beware of ambiguity when reading or writing billion, which though now normally used in British English to mean a thousand million (109) as in American English, also has an earlier meaning of a million million (1012).
Multiples of a thousand
Multiples of a thousand are often indicated by a comma. However, a space is less ambiguous as the comma is used as the decimal symbol in some countries:
Multiples of a thousand |
---|
3,142 |
1,618 |
A common rule in university and research writing is to write three or four figures without commas or spacing, and four or five and more figures with commas or spacing, for example:
Spacing | Commas |
---|---|
3987 | 3,987 |
29 483 | 29,483 |
6 728 349 | 6,728,349 |
As always, be consistent throughout your text and follow any guidelines for your subject or publication.
Percentages
The usual British spelling is per cent, the normal US spelling is percent. Again, be consistent in your use of %, per cent and percent:
Percentages |
---|
10% not ten % |
10 per cent GB or percent US |
ten per cent GB or percent US |